Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology

Multidimensional Constraints to Agricultural Credit access in India: A Systematic Review

Rajula Bheemannagari Deepika — 2026-03-27

Agricultural credit plays a vital role in supporting India’s rural economy and improving the livelihoods of small and marginal farmers. Although institutional credit to agriculture has increased substantially in recent years, equitable and effective access remains a persistent challenge. This paper adopts a systematic review approach based on 15 peer-reviewed studies published between 2021 and 2025 to examine the constraints affecting agricultural credit access in India.

The review identifies five major categories of constraints: institutional/policy, economic, social/demographic, knowledge/behavioral, and structural/systemic. Key issues include gaps in policy implementation, stringent collateral requirements, bureaucratic delays, farmer indebtedness, disparities across social groups, limited financial literacy, and the continued dependence on informal lenders. The findings indicate that while initiatives such as Kisan Credit Cards, Joint Liability Groups, digital lending platforms, Farmer Producer Organizations, and crop insurance schemes offer partial solutions, a comprehensive and integrated approach is necessary. Strengthening last-mile delivery, simplifying procedures, enhancing awareness, and leveraging technology are critical for achieving inclusive and sustainable agricultural finance in India.

The Status and Challenges of Sericulture Industry in the Traditional Silk-producing States of India

Avleen Kour — 2026-03-26

Sericulture has provided significant economic benefits for local economies over millennia and was a significant contributor to burgeoning trade networks and globalization over the first millenia CE. The sericulture industry in India, a cornerstone of rural livelihoods and traditional craftsmanship, remains concentrated in the key states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Assam. These states account for the bulk of the country's raw silk output, with mulberry silk dominating in the southern regions and non-mulberry varieties (eri, tasar, and muga) prominent in the northeast and east. In fiscal year 2023-24, India achieved a record raw silk production of 38,913 metric tons, marking steady growth from previous years supported by government initiatives like Silk Samagra. However, preliminary data for FY 2024-25 (April-December) indicate a decline to approximately 30,614-34,042 metric tons, reflecting challenges such as adverse climatic conditions, silkworm diseases, and fluctuating cocoon prices. Karnataka continues to lead with around 12,463 metric tons, followed by Andhra Pradesh (10,492 MT), Assam (5,745 MT), Tamil Nadu (2,679 MT), and West Bengal (2,131 MT). The sector employs over 9.7 million people, primarily in rural and semi-urban areas, contributing significantly to women's empowerment and socio-economic development. Despite positive long-term trends in productivity (around 2-3% annual growth in recent studies), the industry faces constraints including import competition from China, labor shortages, and limited adoption of modern technologies. Opportunities lie in rising global demand for sustainable natural fibers, export promotion, and innovations in bivoltine silk production, positioning the traditional states for potential revival and enhanced competitiveness in the coming years. With focused policy support and adoption of advanced technologies, Indian sericulture can achieve long-term stability, improved quality, and global competitiveness, thereby contributing significantly to rural livelihoods and the national economy.

Orange Cultivation in ‘Dambuk’ Region of Arunachal Pradesh, India: Production Conditions and Marketing Challenges

Ch. Sankar Rao — 2026-03-19

The Dumbuk region in Arunachal Pradesh is considered as “The Orange Bowl of Arunachal” due to its significance in orange cultivation and its Geographical Indication (GI) status. This paper studies the present production conditions and marketing challenges of orange cultivation in Dambuk region of Arunachal Pradesh, India. It is based on primary data collected from a field survey in 2025. The results show that the orange cultivation farmers in Dambuk region of Arunachal Pradesh follow traditional, organic and chemical based methods of farming. The paid out cost of cultivation and harvest (excluded implicit cost owned inputs) is around Rs 71 thousands per hectare and it increases with farm size. The average yield is around 63 quintals per hectare which increases along the farm size. The net revenue stands around Rs 95.8 thousands per hectare which increases along the farm size. The Revenue-Cost Ratio for all the farmers stands at 1.34 indicating given owned resources, a farmer receives net return of Rs 1.34 for every one rupee spent in orange cultivation in Dambuk region. The main marketing channel for selling the orange production is local markets. The export market is less. The produce is sold majorly to middlemen and wholesale traders and less to retailers and direct consumers. The main production constraints faced by the orange cultivators are high and rising infestation of pests and diseases, high input cost, climate variability, scarcity of labor, and lack of water. The main market constraints are lack of storage facilities, middlemen paying less prices, price fluctuation, shortage of labor, and high transportation cost. A significant proportion of farmers do not want to expand their production in future because of high prevalence of pest & diseases, climate variations and price fluctuations. The study concludes that orange cultivation is crucial for Dambuk region in Arunachal Pradesh for providing income and livelihoods to majority people; hence it needs to be promoted with government support. The farmers suggest for more public investment in developing agricultural infrastructure like transport, irrigation, marketing, storage, export facilities; develop new technology and farming methods to address pest & disease issues and minimum support price or price assurance scheme for price stability.

Analyzing the Role of Government Support in the Development of the Guntur Chilli Yard: A Case Study

Ramavath Naga Sai Rahul Gowrish — 2026-03-23

The Guntur Chilli Yard in Andhra Pradesh is one of the biggest places in Asia for trading chillies and is an important part of India's chilli value chain. To make the market more efficient, open, and profitable for farmers, the government has taken a number of steps in the past few years. These include the integration of the Electronic National Agriculture Market (e-NAM), the promotion of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), the building of storage facilities, and support from agencies like the Spices Board. Even with these efforts, stakeholders are still having problems because of unequal access to markets and low levels of digital literacy. This study looks at how government programs and institutional support systems help the Guntur chilli trade grow and change. Structured questionnaires were used to collect primary data from 120 chilli farmers and 10 experts connected to the Guntur Chilli Yard. Purposive sampling was used to choose respondents who were directly involved in growing and selling chilli. The research utilised Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) to examine the interrelations among Government Initiatives (GI), Functional Support Mechanisms (FSMI), and Support for Growth and Market Integration (SGMI). The results showed that the model fit was good (SRMR = 0.079; RMSEA = 0.076; CFI = 0.996; TLI = 0.994). The results show that government programs help the Guntur chilli trade ecosystem work better, be more efficient, and be more integrated.

Crop Revenue and its Decomposition in Northern Hill Agro Climatic Zone of Madhya Pradesh, India

G. K. Vani — 2026-03-23

This study analyses changes in crop revenue and its key determinants in the Northern Hill agro-climatic zone of Madhya Pradesh from 2007–08 to 2016–17. The analysis is based on secondary data collected from official agricultural sources. The Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method was used to separate the effects of area, yield, price, and cropping pattern on overall crop revenue. The results show that paddy, wheat, and gram are the major crops in the region. Among the different factors, yield and price effects were the main drivers of growth in crop revenue, while area and cropping pattern had a relatively smaller influence. At the crop level, paddy contributed most to area, yield, and price effects, whereas wheat played a major role in cropping pattern changes. The study suggests that improving productivity, ensuring better price support, and promoting crop diversification can help increase farm income and support sustainable agricultural growth.

Communication Channels for Agricultural Information Delivery to Small-scale Maize Farmers in Nandi County, Kenya: Implications for Sustainable Production

Vincent Kipruto Tanui — 2026-03-24

This paper evaluates the communication channels and platforms used to deliver agricultural information services to farmers in Nandi County, Kenya, with a particular emphasis on their influence on sustainable maize production. The study draws on empirical data collected from a sample of 320 small-scale maize farmers, inferential statistics were employed to generalize the findings from the sample of farmers, selected using Yamane’s sample size formula and a simple random sampling, to the entire population of 2,512 farmers, complemented by qualitative insights from interviews with 1 County Director, 3 Sub-County Agricultural Directors, and 12 agricultural extension officers. The data was collected between the months of May and July 2025. The research design adopted for the study was a descriptive survey. The research gathered detailed information through use of both questionnaires and interviews to collect quantitative and qualitative data. It explores existing farming practices, and preferred sources and modes of accessing agricultural information. The analysis also examines the alignment between farmers’ information needs and the communication strategies employed by agricultural stakeholders. The study identifies challenges affecting the effective delivery of Value-Added Agricultural Information Services (VAAIS) in Nandi County. Agricultural extension officers face constraints such as inadequate staffing, limited training opportunities, poor infrastructure, insufficient technological equipment, and unreliable internet connectivity, which hinder their outreach and service delivery. On farmers’ challenges include low digital literacy, limited access to smartphones and internet services, and low education levels, all of which restrict their ability to use digital information platforms effectively. These barriers collectively slow the adoption of modern agricultural technologies and impede efficient information flow between service providers and small-scale farmers. The study recommends strengthening VAAIS in Nandi County through a blended communication approach that combines traditional, interpersonal, and digital platforms. It emphasizes empowering extension services with training, digital tools, and resources to enhance tailored farmer support. Developing inclusive, culturally relevant information packages and improving farmers’ digital literacy are highlighted as key to enhancing access and adoption of agricultural innovations. The study also calls for stronger partnerships with the library, government bodies, the private sector, and farmer groups to improve information exchange, market linkages, and trust.

Indebtedness among Rural Labour Households: Evidence from a Field Survey in Punjab and Bihar

Prem Prakash — 2026-03-27

This paper examines the indebtedness among rural labour households in Punjab and Bihar. Rural labour households are often engaged in seasonal, low-paid wage employment, resulting in an irregular income stream and making them financially vulnerable. Due to a lack of collateral to offer, they usually avail debt from non-institutional financial sources at a high rate of interest, which further perpetuates their financial vulnerability and debt trap. Therefore, this paper examines the incidence and extent of indebtedness, the sources and purposes of debt, and the rate of interest. The paper also attempts to compare the variations and contrasts in indebtedness among rural labour households in Punjab and Bihar. This study is based on the primary data collected from 300 rural labour households from Punjab and Bihar. The analysis revealed that most of rural labour households are in debt, and the incidence and extent of indebtedness are significantly higher in Bihar. Among socially and economically disadvantaged groups, SC and OBC labour households have a higher incidence and burden of debt across both states. The majority of RLHs in Bihar incurred debt from non-institutional sources. About 93 per cent of RLHs from Punjab and Bihar used debt for unproductive purposes. The greater reliance of RLHs on non-institutional financial sources at exorbitant interest rates results in exploitation through surplus extraction, making RLHs more vulnerable, especially in Bihar. Therefore, strengthening access to rural banking and financial literacy is crucial to reducing indebtedness among rural labour households and curbing high dependence on high-interest non-institutional sources of finance.

Farmers’ Knowledge and Adaptive Strategies in Response to Weather Forecast Information in Agriculture: Enhancing Resilience and Productivity

Md. Rayhan Sojib — 2026-03-31

Understanding weather forecast information and adaptive strategies is crucial for making informed decisions to protect crops. This study sought to assess farmers’ knowledge and adaptive strategies in response to weather forecast information in agriculture. A sample of 120 farmers was selected from two villages in Sundarganj Upazila, Gaibandha District, using a multi-stage random sampling method. Data were collected through personal interviews in May 2025 using a structured interview schedule. Farmers’ knowledge was measured through questions developed according to levels of cognitive domain for assessing knowledge, as postulated by Bloom and revised by Anderson and Krathwohl. Pearson’s correlation (r) was used to test the relationship, multiple linear regression (enter and stepwise) analysis was used to identify the explanatory factors influencing farmers’ knowledge of weather forecast information. A four-point rating scale was used to assess the importance of adaptive strategies. Among the socio-economic characteristics of farmers, the level of education, household farm size, farming experience, training received, credit received, sources of weather forecast information, access to ICT tools, exposure to climate shocks, and availability of social support showed significant and positive correlations with their knowledge. Regression analysis confirmed that a significant portion of the variation in farmers’ knowledge of weather forecast information was explained by their level of education, sources of weather forecast information, exposure to climate shocks, and availability of social support. Most farmers rated adaptive strategies as moderately important, such as increasing farm monitoring during periods of expected weather risks, adjusting crop planting dates based on seasonal forecasts, and storing seeds or food in preparation for forecasted extreme events. These factors should be considered when implementing steps and formulating policies to enhance agricultural decision-making and improve farmers’ responses to climatic variability through the timely provision of weather information.

Share Analysis of Pesticide Companies in Uttar Pradesh, India

Arun Kumar Rai — 2026-03-31

The agricultural input industry in India plays a pivotal role in supporting the country's vast and diverse agricultural sector. Foreign companies control a large portion of the Indian market. The overarching goal of the current study was to evaluate the market share of various pesticide brands and investigate the marketing tactics used by pesticide manufacturers. The samples were chosen using a multi-stage sampling strategy. To examine the market share and marketing strategies employed by pesticide businesses, 200 farmers and 130 pesticide dealers from Western Uttar Pradesh districts were chosen at random. Expenditure on pesticides per acre showed diversity among farmers, highlighting the need for targeted pest management strategies. The diversity in expenditure on pesticides per acre among farmers reflected the economic implications of pest management. Farmers who spend more on pesticides have higher production costs, potentially leading to lower profits. Conversely, those who use fewer pesticides reduced their production costs but might face yield losses due to pest damage. Striking the right balance is crucial for economic sustainability in agriculture. The data showed that Pexalon by Corteva Agrisciences holded the largest market share followed closely by Fertera by FMC India Pvt. Ltd. Market share data revealed which pesticide brands dominate the market in each category (insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides). This information was essential for farmers and businesses alike as it helps them understand the competitive dynamics in the industry. Farmers' brand preferences were influenced by factors like quality, price, retailer recommendations, and previous experience, with a strong emphasis on practicality and local advice. Quality emerged as the third most important attribute with a mean score of 23.5, indicated that farmers prioritize the effectiveness and reliability of the pesticides they use. Competitive price comes in second place that demonstrated the importance of cost-effectiveness in their decision-making process with a mean score of 24.5. With a mean score of 25.5, retailer recommendation tops the list as the most important element, indicating that farmers greatly rely on reliable local stores for advice. Farmers' purchase decisions were significantly influenced by promotional events, especially those involving local stores and corporate personnel, underscoring the significance of individualized encounters and hands-on demonstrations.

Contract Farming in Kumaon Division of Uttarakhand, India: An Analysis of Socio-Economic Profiles and Attitude of Contract Farmers

Gargi Paliwal — 2026-03-31

Contract farming is a system for the production and supply of produce by farmers/primary producers under advance contracts, the essence of such arrangements is a commitment to provide an agricultural commodity of a type, at a specified time, price, and in specified quantity to a known buyer.

The present study aims to explore the socio-personal, economic, communication, psychological and attitudinal dimensions of contract farmers in Kumaon Division of Uttarakhand, India. The study was conducted in Kumaon Division of Uttarakhand where two districts Udham Singh Nagar and Nainital were selected purposively. Thus, a total of 200 respondents were selected and interviewed on various identified parameters as per the objectives of the study. The descriptive research design was used to meet the objectives of the study. The Correlation Coefficient (r) was used to measure the relationship between the attitude of farmers towards contract farming and selected independent variables. The findings revealed that maximum number of respondents (48.00%) belonged to middle age category, (64.50%) were male, (43.50%) had education up to intermediate level, (64.00%) belonged to marginal land holding category, (80.50%) belonged to small area under contract farming category, (91.50%) belonged to lower income category, (58.50%) had medium information seeking behaviour, (55.00%) had low level of mass media exposure, (91.00%) had low level of social participation, (43.00%) had medium level of innovativeness, (77.50%) had medium level of scientific orientation, (66.00%) had medium level of economic motivation, (53.50%) had medium level of risk orientation, (88.00%) had medium level of decision making ability, majority of farmers (52.50%) had more favourable attitude towards contract farming. Landholding (-0.268), area under contract farming (-0.143), mass media exposure (-0.249), innovativeness (0.241), scientific orientation (0.237), and economic motivation (0.267) of respondents were significantly correlated with the attitude towards contract farming. It can be concluded that contract farmers had a favourable attitude towards contract farming. Regarding the relationship of selected profile characteristics of contract farmers with attitude towards contract farming, it was found that land holding, area under contract farming, mass media exposure, innovativeness, scientific orientation, and economic motivation were significantly associated with attitude towards contract farming.